Chemical and design Handbook .pdf

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PREFACE
Chemicals are part of our everyday lives. The hundreds of chemicals that
are manufactured by industrial processes influence what we do and how
we do it. This book offers descriptions and process details of the most popular
of those chemicals. The manufacture of chemicals involves many
facets of chemistry and engineering which are exhaustively treated in a
whole series of encyclopedic works, but it is not always simple to rapidly
grasp present status of knowledge from these sources. Thus, there is a
growing demand for a text that contains concise descriptions of the most
important chemical conversions and processes of industrial operations.
This text will, therefore, emphasize the broad principles of systems of
chemicals manufacture rather than intimate and encyclopedic details that
are often difficult to understand. As such, the book will allow the reader to
appreciate the chemistry and engineering aspects of important precursors
and intermediates as well as to follow the development of manufacturing
processes to current state-of-the-art processing.
This book emphasizes chemical conversions, which may be defined as
chemical reactions applied to industrial processing. The basic chemistry
will be set forth along with easy-to-understand descriptions, since the
nature of the chemical reaction will be emphasized in order to assist in
the understanding of reactor type and design. An outline is presented
of the production of a range of chemicals from starting materials into
useful products. These chemical products are used both as consumer
goods and as intermediates for further chemical and physical modification
to yield consumer products.
Since the basis of chemical-conversion classification is a chemical one,
emphasis is placed on the important industrial chemical reactions and
chemical processes in Part 1 of this book. These chapters focus on the various
chemical reactions and the type of equipment that might be used in
such processes. The contents of this part are in alphabetical order by reaction
name.
Part 2 presents the reactions and processes by which individual chemicals,
or chemical types, are manufactured and is subdivided by alphabetical listing
xiii
of the various chemicals. Each item shows the chemical reaction by which
that particular chemical can be manufactured. Equations are kept simple
so that they can be understood by people in the many scientific and engineering
disciplines involved in the chemical manufacturing industry. Indeed, it is
hoped that the chemistry is sufficiently simple that nontechnical readers can
understand the equations.
The design of equipment can often be simplified by the generalizations
arising from a like chemical-conversion arrangement rather than by considering
each reaction as unique.
Extensive use of flowcharts is made as a means of illustrating the various
processes and to show the main reactors and the paths of the feedstocks
and products. However, no effort is made to include all of the valves and
ancillary equipment that might appear in a true industrial setting. Thus, the
flowcharts used here have been reduced to maximum simplicity and are
designed to show principles rather than details.
Although all chemical manufacturers should be familiar with the current
selling prices of the principal chemicals with which they are concerned,
providing price information is not a purpose of this book. Prices per unit
weight or volume are subject to immediate changes and can be very misleading.
For such information, the reader is urged to consult the many
sources that deal with the prices of chemical raw materials and products.
In the preparation of this work, the following sources have been used to
provide valuable information:

The Six Sigma Project Planner : A Step-by-Step Guide to Leading a Six Sigma Project Through DMAIC by Thomas Pyzdek

Publisher: McGraw-Hill; 1 edition (March 21, 2003) | 0071411836 | 249Pages | PDF | 1.44MB

Project management strategies for meeting Six Sigma project goals--on time and on budget. The Six Sigma Project Planner shows Six Sigma Black Belts and Green Belts how to use project management tools to complete Six Sigma improvements on time and on budget. The Planner provides dozens of reproducible project management tools for following the proven Define-Measure- Analyze-Improve- Control (DMAIC) process improvement format.

Readers who follow its guidelines will be able to quickly and effectively:

・Determine a Six Sigma project's ROI
・Correct problems in current processes
・Develop and implement entirely new processes


www.rapidshare.com/files/34569217/The_Six_Sigma_ Project_Planner_-_A_Step- by-Step_Guide_to_Leading_a_Six_Sigma_Project_Through_DMAIC.pdf

Exhaust System of Car

Your car's exhaust system carries away the gases created when the fuel and air are burned in the combustion chamber. These gases are harmful to humans and our environment. Frequent checks of your exhaust system is a must to provide for you and your family's safety. Make sure there are no holes in the exhaust system or in the passenger compartment where exhaust fumes could enter. Let's begin by listing the parts of the exhaust system and their functions.

• Exhaust manifold: The exhaust manifold attaches to the cylinder head and takes each cylinders exhaust and combines it into one pipe. The manifold can be made of steel, aluminum, stainless steel, or more commonly cast iron.
• Oxygen sensor: All modern fuel injected cars utilize an oxygen sensor to measure how much oxygen is present in the exhaust. From this the computer can add or subtract fuel to obtain the correct mixture for maximum fuel economy. The oxygen sensor is mounted in the exhaust manifold or close to it in the exhaust pipe.
• Catalytic converter: This muffler like part converts harmful carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons to water vapor and carbon dioxide. Some converters also reduce harmful nitrogen oxides. The converter is mounted between the exhaust manifold and the muffler.
• Muffler: The muffler serves to quiet the exhaust down to acceptable levels. Remember that the combustion process is a series of explosions that create allot of noise. Most mufflers use baffles to bounce the exhaust around dissipating the energy and quieting the noise. Some mufflers also use fiberglass packing which absorbs the sound energy as the gases flow through.
• Exhaust pipe: Between all of the above mention parts is the exhaust pipe which carries the gas through it's journey out your tail pipe. Exhaust tubing is usually made of steel but can be stainless steel (which lasts longer due to it's corrosion resistance) or aluminized steel tubing. Aluminized steel has better corrosion resistance than plain steel but not better than stainless steel. It is however cheaper than stainless steel.

Common Problems:

Well the worst enemy of your exhaust system is corrosion... . or more commonly known as rust. Rust is caused by moisture reacting with the iron in the steel and forming iron oxide. Moisture, or water vapor is present in the exhaust as a by-product of combustion and the catalytic converter. Moisture can also come from the outside in the form of rain.
Short trips in your car can shorten the life of your exhaust system. When you shut down your engine whatever water vapor is in the pipes condenses and turns back into a liquid. On a short trip the water never has a chance to get hot enough to turn back into water vapor and just stays in the system and rusts away the pipes. If you drive for short distances consider replacing your exhaust system with stainless steel when the plain steel one rusts through. If you drive more than 15 miles at a time then you should not have to worry about this.
If you live in an area which uses salt on the roads in the winter time, make sure to wash the underside of you car with water every few weeks. Salt speeds up the corrosion process and getting it off as soon as possible will help stop the corrosion. Make sure you run the engine after washing to drive off all of the water on the pipes.

Noticing a decrease in your gas mileage? Your oxygen sensor could be going south on you. As time goes on the oxygen sensor begins to wear out and becomes less accurate. This sometimes results in a rich fuel mixture where your engine burns more fuel than is needed. Most of the time your check engine light will come on and alert you to a failing oxygen sensor. I suggest changing the oxygen sensor every 60,000 miles just to be safe. Even though your check engine light might not be on, you could be using more gas than is needed. Pay a few bucks and change the sensor, your wallet will thank you when you have to buy less gas down the road.

The next part in line to go is the muffler. Most of the time mufflers rust through and need to be replaced. There are allot of options out there for replacement mufflers. Some cheap and some expensive. It holds true..... you get what you pay for. If you plan on keeping your car for any period of time, spend the extra cash and get an OEM muffler or a high quality name brand muffler.

On rare occasions the catalytic converter will become clogged and need to be replaced. Symptoms include loss of power, heat coming from the floor of your car, glowing red converter or a sulfur smell. Never let a mechanic tell you that you can do without the catalytic converter. Removing this component is illegal in most states and can lead to a hefty fine to the government if you are not careful.

That's about it for the exhaust system, just remember that rust is the biggest enemy to your exhaust system. Take the above mentioned steps and your exhaust system will last a long time.

Composites

Introduction

The idea is that by combining two or more distinct materials one can engineer a new material with the desired combination of properties (e.g., light, strong, corrosion resistant). The idea that a better combination of properties can be achieved is called the principle of combined action.

New - High-tech materials, engineered to specific applications

Old - brick-straw composites, paper, known for > 5000 years.

A type of composite that has been discussed is perlitic steel, which combines hard, brittle cementite with soft, ductile ferrite to get a superior material.

Natural composites: wood (polymer-polymer) , bones (polymer-ceramics) .

Usual composites have just two phases:

• matrix (continuous)
• dispersed phase (particulates, fibers)

Properties of composites depend on

• properties of phases
• geometry of dispersed phase (particle size, distribution, orientation)
• amount of phase

Classification of composites: three main categories:

• particle-reinforced (large-particle and dispersion-strength ened)
• fiber-reinforced (continuous (aligned) and short fibers (aligned or random)
• structural (laminates and sandwich panels)

Particle-reinforced composites

These are the cheapest and most widely used. They fall in two categories depending on the size of the particles:

• large-particle composites, which act by restraining the movement of the matrix, if well bonded.
• dispersion-strength ened composites, containing 10-100 nm particles, similar to what was discussed under precipitation hardening. The matrix bears the major portion of the applied load and the small particles hinder dislocation motion, limiting plastic deformation.

Large-Particle Composites

Properties are a combination of those of the components. The rule of mixtures predicts that an upper limit of the elastic modulus of the composite is given in terms of the elastic moduli of the matrix (E_m) and the particulate (E_p) phases by:

E_c = E_mV_m + E_pV_p

where V_m and V_p are the volume fraction of the two phases. A lower bound is given by:

E_c = E_mE_p / (E_pV_m + E_mV_p)

Fig. 17.3 - modulus of composite of WC particles in Cu matrix vs. WC concentration.

Concrete

The most common large-particle composite is concrete, made of a cement matrix that bonds particles of different size (gravel and sand.) Cement was already known to the Egyptians and the Greek. Romans made cement by mixing lime (CaO) with volcanic ice.

In its general from, cement is a fine mixture of lime, alumina, silica, and water. Portland cement is a fine powder of chalk, clay and lime-bearing minerals fired to 1500^o C (calcinated) . It forms a paste when dissolved in water. It sets into a solid in minutes and hardens slowly (takes 4 months for full strength). Properties depend on how well it is mixed, and the amount of water: too little - incomplete bonding, too much - excessive porosity.

The advantage of cement is that it can be poured in place, it hardens at room temperature and even under water, and it is very cheap. The disadvantages are that it is weak and brittle, and that water in the pores can produce crack when it freezes in cold weather.

Concrete is cement strengthened by adding particulates. The use of different size (stone and sand) allows better packing factor than when using particles of similar size.

Concrete is improved by making the pores smaller (using finer powder, adding polymeric lubricants, and applying pressure during hardening.

Reinforced concrete is obtained by adding steel rods, wires, mesh. Steel has the advantage of a similar thermal expansion coefficient, so there is reduced danger of cracking due to thermal stresses. Pre-stressed concrete is obtained by applying tensile stress to the steel rods while the cement is setting and hardening. When the tensile stress is removed, the concrete is left under compressive stress, enabling it to sustain tensile loads without fracturing. Pre-stressed concrete shapes are usually prefabricated. A common use is in railroad or highway bridges.

Cermets

are composites of ceramic particles (strong, brittle) in a metal matrix (soft, ductile) that enhances toughness. For instance, tungsten carbide or titanium carbide ceramics in Co or Ni. They are used for cutting tools for hardened steels.

Reinforced rubber

is obtained by strengthening with 20-50 nm carbon-black particles. Used in auto tires.

Dispersion-Strength ened Composites

Use of very hard, small particles to strengthen metals and metal alloys. The effect is like precipitation hardening but not so strong. Particles like oxides do not react so the strengthening action is retained at high temperatures.

Fiber-reinforced composites

In many applications, like in aircraft parts, there is a need for high strength per unit weight (specific strength). This can be achieved by composites consisting of a low-density (and soft) matrix reinforced with stiff fibers.

The strength depends on the fiber length and its orientation with respect to the stress direction.

The efficiency of load transfer between matrix and fiber depends on the interfacial bond.

Influence of Fiber Length

Normally the matrix has a much lower modulus than the fiber so it strains more. This occurs at a distance from the fiber. Right next to the fiber, the strain is limited by the fiber. Thus, for a composite under tension, a shear stress appears in the matrix that pulls from the fiber. The pull is uniform over the area of the fiber. This makes the force on the fiber be minimum at the ends and maximum in the middle, like in the tug-of-war game.

To achieve effective strengthening and stiffening, the fibers must be larger than a critical length l_c, defined as the minimum length at which the center of the fiber reaches the ultimate (tensile) strength s_f, when the matrix achieves the maximum shear strength t_m:

l_c = s_f d /2 t_m

Since it is proportional to the diameter of the fiber d, a more unified condition for effective strengthening is that the aspect ratio of the fiber is l/d > s_f /2 t_m.

Influence of Fiber Orientation

The composite is stronger along the direction of orientation of the fibers and weakest in a direction perpendicular to the fiber. For discontinuous, random fibers, the properties are isotropic.

Polymer Matrix Composites

Largest and most diverse use of composites due to ease of fabrication, low cost and good properties.

Glass-fiber reinforced composites (GFRC) are strong, corrosion resistant and lightweight, but not very stiff and cannot be used at high temperatures. Applications include auto and boat bodies, aircraft components.

Carbon-fiber reinforced composites (CFRC) use carbon fibers, which have the highest specific module (module divided by weight). CFRC are strong, inert, allow high temperature use. Applications include fishing rods, golf clubs, aircraft components.

Kevlar, and aremid-fiber composite (Fig. 17.9) can be used as textile fibers. Applications include bullet-proof vests, tires, brake and clutch linings.

Wood

This is one of the oldest and the most widely used structural material. It is a composite of strong and flexible cellulose fibers (linear polymer) surrounded and held together by a matrix of lignin and other polymers. The properties are anisotropic and vary widely among types of wood. Wood is ten times stronger in the axial direction than in the radial or tangential directions.

Laminar Composites

Sheets (panels) with different orientation of high strength directions are stacked and glued together, producing a material with more isotropic strength in the plane. Examples are plywood and modern skis.

Sandwich Panels

Strong, stiff end sheets are bonded to lightweight core structure, for instance honeycomb which provides strength to shear. It is used in roofs, walls, and aircraft structures.

Time for new supply chain Icon

Gilmore SAYS:

I think very highly of P&G’s supply chain, and think the company is especially good at continuous improvement. It has continued to thrive. Still, I’ve also heard from some people in the know that there’s been some things to learn from the Gillette supply chain team post acquisition about sales and operations planning, collaboration and some other supply chain processes.

By Dan Gilmore - Editor-in-Chief

As most of our readers know, I travel quite a bit on the supply chain and logistics conference and seminar circuit.

Almost always, someone cites examples of great supply chains, and about 98% of the time the references are to Wal-Mart and Dell, and occasionally one or two others (e.g., Procter & Gamble). In April 2005, for example, I participated at a Supply Chain Management conference at Penn State , during which a panel of supply chain pundit types was asked specifically to name some great supply chains besides Dell and Wal-Mart. I recall the panel managed to cite P&G and not a whole lot more.

Dell, Wal-Mart and P&G are great companies all, with excellent supply chains. That said:

• Dell and Wal-Mart have had their troubles recently. Relative troubles, for sure, meaning they are still growing revenue and profits, just not at the clip they once did. In both cases, I’ll argue supply chain plays some role in the challenges (see below).
• We just need some “new blood”
• Many pundits can’t articulate why these companies have great supply chains. I often ask the people citing these leaders that very question. Generally, the answer is “the build-to-order model” for Dell, and hardly any clear response for Wal-Mart, other than that its prices are so low, its supply chain must be great.

I’ll repeat again that Dell and Wal-Mart are great companies with great supply chains (I own the stock of one – you’ll have to guess which). But their supply chains are arguably not delivering the competitive advantages they once did. Innovation is eventually matched, and operating conditions change.

In Dell’s case, competitors have simply caught up from a supply chain effectiveness and cost perspective. That’s in part why we’ve seen both IBM and HP very active and public about their supply chain stories in the past couple of years. They want the market and Wall Street to know Dell isn’t the only computer firm with an impressive supply chain.

The advantages Dell had in terms of make-to-order model are also reduced as the price of finished units and individual components continues its relentless drive south. The cost of inventory and the dynamics of component pricing just have less of an impact. There is also some evidence that the make-to-order model is less attractive in some global markets, and in the growing category of notebooks. Notebooks also require more R&D today than desktops and many servers, and Dell’s generally small level of R&D spend versus sales may be hurting them there.

Wal-Mart has also had some troubles internationally, having major stumbles in Germany and South Korea , and a tough time in the U.K. versus Tesco. Some have stated that the centralized “command and control” model that drove store operations and the supply chain in North America may not be effective in other parts of the globe. Wal-Mart itself is now moving in part to a more decentralized operating model in the U.S. (see In Search of More Growth, Wal-Mart Follows Best Buy in Move to Tailor Stores to Individual Markets). The company had also allowed inventory to grow at a much faster rate than sales growth for a couple of years, leading to this year’s Inventory DeLoad program (which appears to be having a positive effect in reversing this trend).

I think very highly of P&G’s supply chain, and think the company is especially good at continuous improvement. It has continued to thrive. Still, I’ve also heard from some people in the know that there’s been some things to learn from the Gillette supply chain team post acquisition about sales and operations planning, collaboration and some other supply chain processes.

So while giving these companies their due, I think we need to find some additional icons, and be more explicit about why any of them are “in the club.” I’d love to hear from our readers about their companies, or other companies our readers would cite. A very imperfect list of new icon candidates is offered below, some of them “likely suspects,” maybe some others that will surprise.

• IBM: For the massive and impressive job they have done under the leadership of Bob Moffat in building an integrated supply chain organization on a huge global scale.
• Cisco: Sometimes mentioned as an icon, Cisco impresses with its ability to run a huge, almost totally outsourced supply chain with a relatively small team and heavy infusions real-time information and visibility.
• Zara: This European retailer is also cited a bit but not nearly enough in North American circles, probably from a lack of familiarity and U.S. store presence. Zara has implemented the demand-driven, “Quick Response” supply chain that many hoped was the future for the industry 15 years ago but which has largely failed to materialize.
• Tesco: Powerful global retailer coming soon to U.S. shores, it adopted lean principles throughout its supply chain, and seems very savvy in its approach to RFID.
• The Limited Brands: Seems under-recognized to me, probably in part because (of necessity) its supply chains are tightly aligned with its many individual store brands. But the specialty retailer seems always on the supply chain move, and is known for the quality of its supply chain and logistics development programs.
• Frito-Lay: A division of PepsiCo, the snack team has leading edge distribution processes, is an advanced user of supply chain technology, and is one of the few companies performing true continuous network optimization. Like The Limited, it is also one of the “farm teams” for the rest of the industry.
• Canadian Tire: This Canadian retailer does outstanding work letting demand drive the rest of the supply chain, and has shown strong operating results competing north of the border against Wal-Mart.
• Ashley Furniture: This rapidly growing furniture manufacturer and retailer does one of the best jobs we’ve seen managing a long global supply chain like a just-in-time one.
• Wegmans: This smaller profile, privately held grocery chain doesn't get enough credit for seemingly always being in the forefront and driving real value from initiatives like CPFR and data synchronization.

We’ll be providing more detail on many of these stories in the near term – but would love to hear your company’s story or your suggestions for others.

Do we need some “new blood” in terms of our supply chain role models? What companies would you suggest and why – including your company? Let us know your thoughts.

GILMORE SAYS: I think very highly of P&G’s supply chain, and think the company is especially good at continuous improvement. It has continued to thrive. Still, I’ve also heard from some people in the know that there’s been some things to learn from the Gillette supply chain team post acquisition about sales and operations planning, collaboration and some other supply chain processes. What do you say? Send us your comments As most of our readers know, I travel quite a bit on the supply chain and logistics conference and seminar circuit. Almost always, someone cites examples of great supply chains, and about 98% of the time the references are to Wal-Mart and Dell, and occasionally one or two others (e.g., Procter & Gamble). In April 2005, for example, I participated at a Supply Chain Management conference at Penn State , during which a panel of supply chain pundit types was asked specifically to name some great supply chains besides Dell and Wal-Mart. I recall the panel managed to cite P&G and not a whole lot more. Dell, Wal-Mart and P&G are great companies all, with excellent supply chains. That said: Dell and Wal-Mart have had their troubles recently. Relative troubles, for sure, meaning they are still growing revenue and profits, just not at the clip they once did. In both cases, I’ll argue supply chain plays some role in the challenges (see below). We just need some “new blood” Many pundits can’t articulate why these companies have great supply chains. I often ask the people citing these leaders that very question. Generally, the answer is “the build-to-order model” for Dell, and hardly any clear response for Wal-Mart, other than that its prices are so low, its supply chain must be great. I’ll repeat again that Dell and Wal-Mart are great companies with great supply chains (I own the stock of one – you’ll have to guess which). But their supply chains are arguably not delivering the competitive advantages they once did. Innovation is eventually matched, and operating conditions change. In Dell’s case, competitors have simply caught up from a supply chain effectiveness and cost perspective. That’s in part why we’ve seen both IBM and HP very active and public about their supply chain stories in the past couple of years. They want the market and Wall Street to know Dell isn’t the only computer firm with an impressive supply chain. The advantages Dell had in terms of make-to-order model are also reduced as the price of finished units and individual components continues its relentless drive south. The cost of inventory and the dynamics of component pricing just have less of an impact. There is also some evidence that the make-to-order model is less attractive in some global markets, and in the growing category of notebooks. Notebooks also require more R&D today than desktops and many servers, and Dell’s generally small level of R&D spend versus sales may be hurting them there. Wal-Mart has also had some troubles internationally, having major stumbles in Germany and South Korea , and a tough time in the U.K. versus Tesco. Some have stated that the centralized “command and control” model that drove store operations and the supply chain in North America may not be effective in other parts of the globe. Wal-Mart itself is now moving in part to a more decentralized operating model in the U.S. (see In Search of More Growth, Wal-Mart Follows Best Buy in Move to Tailor Stores to Individual Markets). The company had also allowed inventory to grow at a much faster rate than sales growth for a couple of years, leading to this year’s Inventory DeLoad program (which appears to be having a positive effect in reversing this trend). I think very highly of P&G’s supply chain, and think the company is especially good at continuous improvement. It has continued to thrive. Still, I’ve also heard from some people in the know that there’s been some things to learn from the Gillette supply chain team post acquisition about sales and operations planning, collaboration and some other supply chain processes. So while giving these companies their due, I think we need to find some additional icons, and be more explicit about why any of them are “in the club.” I’d love to hear from our readers about their companies, or other companies our readers would cite. A very imperfect list of new icon candidates is offered below, some of them “likely suspects,” maybe some others that will surprise. IBM: For the massive and impressive job they have done under the leadership of Bob Moffat in building an integrated supply chain organization on a huge global scale. Cisco: Sometimes mentioned as an icon, Cisco impresses with its ability to run a huge, almost totally outsourced supply chain with a relatively small team and heavy infusions real-time information and visibility. Zara: This European retailer is also cited a bit but not nearly enough in North American circles, probably from a lack of familiarity and U.S. store presence. Zara has implemented the demand-driven, “Quick Response” supply chain that many hoped was the future for the industry 15 years ago but which has largely failed to materialize. Tesco: Powerful global retailer coming soon to U.S. shores, it adopted lean principles throughout its supply chain, and seems very savvy in its approach to RFID. The Limited Brands: Seems under-recognized to me, probably in part because (of necessity) its supply chains are tightly aligned with its many individual store brands. But the specialty retailer seems always on the supply chain move, and is known for the quality of its supply chain and logistics development programs. Frito-Lay: A division of PepsiCo, the snack team has leading edge distribution processes, is an advanced user of supply chain technology, and is one of the few companies performing true continuous network optimization. Like The Limited, it is also one of the “farm teams” for the rest of the industry. Canadian Tire: This Canadian retailer does outstanding work letting demand drive the rest of the supply chain, and has shown strong operating results competing north of the border against Wal-Mart. Ashley Furniture: This rapidly growing furniture manufacturer and retailer does one of the best jobs we’ve seen managing a long global supply chain like a just-in-time one. Wegmans: This smaller profile, privately held grocery chain doesn't get enough credit for seemingly always being in the forefront and driving real value from initiatives like CPFR and data synchronization. We’ll be providing more detail on many of these stories in the near term – but would love to hear your company’s story or your suggestions for others. Do we need some “new blood” in terms of our supply chain role models? What companies would you suggest and why – including your company? Let us know your thoughts.

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Have a nice day,

To your success,

Salwin K
Editor
http://manufacturin g-trends. com

"Keep watching the website, it will get updated beginning of every week with special reports and presentations"

P.S: You can also send a mail to leantrends-subscrib e@yahoogroups. com and get the free "Six sigma - a complete experts guide"

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